What are Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are the complex compounds of carbon. Because carbon atoms bond to one another easily, the basis of most organic compounds is comprised of carbon chains that vary in length and shape. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms are the most common atoms that are generally attached to the carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has 4 as its valence number which increases the complexity of the compounds that are formed. Since carbon atoms are able to create double and triple bonds with other atoms, it further also raises the likelihood for variation in the molecular make-up of organic compounds.

All living things are composed of intricate systems of inorganic and organic compounds. For example, there are many kinds of organic compounds that are found in nature, such as hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are the molecules that are formed when carbon and hydrogen combine. They are not soluble in water and easily distribute. There are also aldehydes – the molecular association of a double-bonded oxygen molecule and a carbon atom. 

There are many classes of organic compounds. Originally, they were believed to come from living organisms only. However, in the mid-1800s, it became clear that they could also be created from simple inorganic proteins. Yet, many of the organic compounds are associated with basic processes of life, such as carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. 

Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon and include sugars. They are quite numerous and fill a number of roles for living organisms. For example, carbohydrates are responsible for storing and transporting energy, maintaining the structure of plants and animals, and in helping the functioning of the immune system, blood clotting, and fertilization – to name just a few. 

Proteins are a class of organic compounds that are comprised of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are soluble in water. The protein itself is composed of subunits called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids found in nature – organisms can convert them from one to another for all but eight of the amino acids. 

Lipids comprise a class of organic compounds that are insoluble in water or other polar solvents; however, they are soluble in organic solvents. Lipids are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and a variable of other elements. Lipids store energy, protect internal organs, provide insulation in frigid temperatures, among other features. Lipids can be broken down into several groups ranging from triglycerides, steroids, waxes, and phospholipids. 

Nucleic acids are another group of organic compounds. They are universal in all living organisms. In fact, they are found in cells and viruses. Some people may not consider a virus to be a living thing. Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic acids in 1871.

What is UV Light

UV light, short for ultraviolet light, is light with a wavelength shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. This means electromagnetic waves with a wavelength between 400 nm and 10 nm, with energies from 3 eV to 124 eV. UV light is more energetic than visible light and has a shorter wavelength, letting it penetrate more readily through obstacles. The "ultraviolet" in ultraviolet light references that UV light is beyond violet on the electromagnetic spectrum. Like other forms of electromagnetic radiation outside the visible spectrum, UV light is invisible, but it can be observed indirectly by the way it makes many other substances fluoresce in the visible spectrum. 

In popular culture, UV light is primarily thought of as a party light because of the way it makes textiles and clothing, particularly white shirts, fluoresce brightly. "Black lights" are synonymous with UV light. These lights primarily produce light in the UV portion of the spectrum, but they also produce a slight violet glow. Special posters or other works of art are often created with the express purpose of fluorescing a certain way under a black light. 

UV light has many other applications outside of the party scene. It is frequently used in security. For instance, sensitive documents, such as currency, driver's licenses, credit cards or passports, have invisible symbols on them that light up only in the presence of UV light. These are difficult for counterfeiters to copy.

Common fluorescent lamps are powered by UV light. UV light is produced by ionizing low-pressure mercury vapor, which is then absorbed by a special fluorescent coating, which in turn produces visible light. Fluorescent lights are more energy-efficient than conventional light bulbs. 

Biologists and zoologists are quite fond of UV light as it helps them take nighttime organism surveys in the field. Certain birds, reptiles, and insects (such as bees) are clearly visible under UV light, and quickly flashing a UV light over a small area can allow observers to count the approximate number of organisms of a given type in that area. This is very helpful because many animals are highly nocturnal and rarely if ever seen during the day. 

Besides the above mentioned applications, UV light can also be used for spectrophotometry (to analyze chemical structure), analyzing minerals, chemical markers, photochemotherapy (for psoraisis), very fine resolution photolithography, checking electrical insulation, sterilization, disinfecting drinking water, food processing, lasers, and many other areas.

What is Chromatography

Chromatography is a process which can be used to isolate the various components of a mixture. There are a number of different types of chromatography in use, including gas, liquid, paper, and gel permeation chromatography, and this process can get quite involved, especially with complex mixtures. It is also an extremely useful addition to a variety of fields, including pure and applied sciences, forensics, and athletics, among many others.

The process relies on the fact that different molecules will behave in different ways when they are dissolved in a solvent and moved across an absorbent medium. In a very simple example, one could take ink and make a mark on a piece of paper. The paper could be dipped into water, and the capillary action of the water would pull the ink through the paper. As the ink moved, its ingredients would separate out, revealing a distinctive pattern which could be used to determine the components of the ink.

In preparative chromatography, researchers separate individual components of a compound for use in the lab or in research. This process can get extremely precise: using a preparative chromatography technique, for example, a scientists can isolate two strands of DNA which differ by only a few pieces of information. In analytical chromatography, the goal is to figure out what is in a sample. Drug testing relies on analytical chromatography to isolate illicit substances in urine and blood samples, for instance.

In the example above with a dot of ink and a piece of paper, the basic concepts behind the process are illustrated, although most chromatography machines are a bit more sophisticated. It is important to choose the right solvent or carrier fluid to dissolve the sample in, and to select an appropriate solid medium to pass the sample through. Poor choices can result in confusing or inaccurate results, and the chromatography procedure requires substantial skills on the part of the operator to ensure that it returns useful data.

The result of a session is a chromatograph, a printout which provides information about the substance being analyzed. The printout usually takes the form of a chart with a series of troughs and peaks. Each peak represents a substance present in the sample, and the concentrations of these substances can be determined by looking at the height and width of the peak. Computerized chromatography machines generate such printouts automatically as the data is produced, and they can also be made by hand.

What Are Cilia

The term cilia is Latin for "eyelashes." Common in single-cell organisms, these hair-like structure wave to move the cell around or to move something around the cell. Cilia also are present on most cells in the human body. Some tissues in the body, such as the Fallopian tubes in women and the trachea, also have a special type of cilia that help transport substances along the tissues' surfaces.

Types of Cilia in the Body

In the body, cilia on the surface of tissues are responsible for protecting a person from germs in the lungs and for pushing an ovum through the Fallopian tube, among other tasks. These cilia are called motile cilia, and they are found in groups and beat in waves. Primary cilia, on the other hand, usually are found only one at a time on cells.

Structure

The structure of a single cilium is much like a tube, and its long fibers are called microtubules. These microtubules often pair up to form doublets, which in turn form a ring. The cross-section of doublets of microtubules looks like a figure 8, because the two microtubules stick together along a line. Nine doublets form the larger ring in what is known as a 9-2 pattern. When kinesin binds to one side of the doublets and not the other, the cilium flexes and curves, similar to the way a person's skeletal muscles contract. 

Functions

Single-celled eukaryotes, which are organisms with cells that have a nucleus, often use cilia to move through liquid. This type of organism is surrounded by a cytoskeleton, made of protein filaments that allow the cell to hold its shape. A cilium attaches to the cytoskeleton of the cell with a basal body, the way a root attaches hair to human skin. 

The rhythm of waving cilia is controlled by centrioles, which are organelles located inside the cell wall. Mitochondria, other units inside the cell, provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a source of cellular energy, for the cilia. The ATP directs the chemical kinesin to bind to certain parts of the cilia that control their movement. Thus, the cilia are able to beat or essentially swim their way through viscous liquid.

Flagella

Similar to cilia, flagella are longer such hairs, usually found in ones or twos, such as the tail of a sperm. They share many characteristics with cilia, but they also occur on prokaryotes, which are organisms with cells that do not contain a nucleus. Some eukaryotes that use cilia and flagella to move are also found in ferns, on algae, on bacteria and inside many animals. This adaptation originally allowed independent cellular creatures, such as paramecia, to move around in search of food, rather than wait until food came to them. Cells that are part of larger systems have continued to use cilia to their advantage.

What Are the Pros and Cons of Genetically Engineered Food

Genetically engineered food, also known as Genetically Modified or GM food, is food that has been altered at the genetic level to produce a better tasting, longer lasting, or more resistant product. Vegetables and other crops are the most common type of genetically engineered food. Corn, for example, has been altered to be naturally insect-resistant, while tomatoes have been modified to slow down the rotting process. Genetically engineered food has its pros and cons, which include:

PROS

1. Genetically engineered food is cost effective. Because it is designed to resist pests and prosper under non-optimal conditions, it can also help people in areas where regular crops would not prosper. Large savings in production may lead to financial gain and help fight poverty.
2. Genetically engineered food can be naturally pest-resistant and thus reduce the need for additional chemicals, pesticides, and other dangerous additives.
3. Genetically engineered food may help reduce world hunger, at least in theory. As new species are altered to grow faster or more effectively, they can be used to feed poor nations or chosen for countries where crops may not normally prosper because of less than desirable environmental conditions. Some companies now claim to be producing crops that can help against certain diseases or provide specific nutrients, such as milk proteins and iron, which would otherwise not be available to some populations.

CONS

1. Genetically engineered food is too new for us to know if it may have an effect on the human body. Modifying the essence of a food may also alter the dynamics of it in ways not known. Since many of the alterations include adding chemical properties to the crops, some people fear what effect those same chemicals may have on us.
2. Poor countries will not have easy access to genetically engineered food unless directly given to them, which means that the world's richest nations will control the market. This may result in a high dependency on the side of the poor nations, which will in turn lead to a broken economy.

What is a Faraday Cage

It's very likely you woke up this morning in a Faraday cage, made your breakfast in another Faraday cage, and drove a Faraday cage to work. Depending on your particular job, you may have spent much of your day in front of yet another Faraday cage.

The concept of a Faraday cage is logically attributed to Michael Faraday, an 19th Century pioneer in the field of electromagnetic energy. Faraday studied the work of earlier scientists such as Benjamin Franklin and theorized that electromagnetic waves naturally flowed around the surface of conductive materials, not through them. For example, if a metal box containing a mouse were placed directly in the path of an electrical current, the electricity would flow over the box but not into the compartment with the mouse. The mouse would not be electrocuted. Such a box would be considered a Faraday cage.

The important concept to remember is that a Faraday cage acts as a shield against the effects of electromagnetic energy. When a car is struck by lightning, the metal frame becomes a Faraday cage and draws the electricity away from the passengers inside. A microwave oven's door has a screen which prevents electromagnetic energy from escaping into the room. Electronic parts which generate radio frequencies are often protected by Faraday cages called RF shields. Even a concrete building reinforced with lead or rebar can be considered a Faraday cage.

Few consumers of electronic products would ever ask the sales clerk for a Faraday cage, but designers and engineers understand the importance of electromagnetic shielding very well. Whenever sensitive electronic parts are used in machinery, some form of shielding is generally in place, whether it be the machine's metal shell, a capsule or a grounding wire. If the electronic parts generate electromagnetic energy of their own, a Faraday cage must be used to shield users from excessive exposure. This is why cell phone use is often discouraged in hospitals or other public places with electronic equipment. Unshielded equipment may be exposed to the microwave energy created by cell phones or other radio transmitters.

What Is Vegetable Glycerin

Vegetable glycerin is also known as vegetable glycerol. It is a carbohydrate that is usually derived from plant oils. It is used as a sweetener and as an ingredient in a number of cosmetic products. Vegetable glycerin is also used in place of alcohol to extract botanicals.

Glycerin is an organic compound composed of three carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and three OH groups. These OH groups form hydrogen bonds with water, slowing down its movement and giving liquid glycerin the property of a syrup. It is also resistant to freezing, a property used in storing sensitive liquids, such as enzymes, in laboratory freezers.

Food-grade vegetable glycerin is 99.7% pure, with the remaining 0.3% being water. It has a sweet taste, but is metabolized differently than sugar and does not raise blood sugar levels. Glycerin is used in foods marketed as being low in carbohydrates to keep them sweet and moist. It also does not contribute to bacterial tooth decay.

Vegetable glycerin is also used as a substitute for alcohol, in making botanical extracts. The advantage of this is that people who do not want to be exposed to alcohol can still have access to the botanical products. The disadvantage is that the resulting products have a much shorter shelf life.

Its solubility in alcohol and water had led to great utility in the manufacturing of products. Glycerin is used in a large number of cosmetic and household products, such as toothpastes and shampoo. It is also a component of glycerin soap, which is often used by people with sensitive skin. This soap acts as moisturizer to prevent the skin from drying out. For this reason, glycerin lotion is also popular.

There are also medical uses for vegetable glycerin. Glycerin suppositories are used as laxatives. It can also be used as a topical remedy for a number of skin problems, including psoriasis, rashes, burns, bedsores, and cuts. Glycerin is also employed to treat gum disease, as it kills associated bacterial colonies.

While glycerin can be made as a by-product of soap that is made from animal fats, it can also be made from plants. The glycerol backbone is part of the basic structure of many lipids. Vegetable glycerin is made from the oils and fats of a plant-based ingredient, generally coconut or palm oil. The oil is heated to a high temperature under pressure with water. The glycerin backbone splits off from the fatty acids, and is absorbed by the water, from which it is then isolated and distilled.